THE DELHI SULTANATE
The state set up by the Turks towards the end of the 12th century in Northern India, gradualIy developed into a powerfull and highly Centralised state which, for sometime, controlled almost the entire Country, extending as far South as Madurai.
FOUNDATION OF THE MUSLIM STATE:
The Mamluks, who had already conquered Persia (modern Iran), came to Conquer India around 1100 AD. They were able to defeat the Rajput Kings of India by 1192 AD and took over Northern India. By the end of the 12th century, Mohammed Ghori was successful in occupying Delhi and started a dynasty of rulers which, together with some later Dynasties, came to be called the Delhi Sultanate. The Sultanate of Delhi, said to have been formally founded by Qutb-ud-din-Aibak.
The Delhi Sultanate began as a process of assimilation and accommodation between the Muslim culture and traditions of Central Asia and the Hindu culture and traditions of India.
- Absence of any powerful Central Authority in India.
- Disunity, mutual jealousy and lack of military system in the Rajput’s rule.
- Religious zeal among the Muslims and lack of unifying force among the Hindus.
In 1206, when Mohammed Ghori was killed and Qutb-ud-din
Aibak became the Ruler of Hindustan, the Sultanate included many of the
important towns and Strategic places in Northern India. This was the beginning
of the Slave dynasty in India.
FIVE DYNASTIES RULED AT DELHl FROM 1206 -1526 AD
The first dynasty of the Sultanate has been designated by various Scholars as the Slave dynasty or the Mamluk dynasty or the Ilbari dynasty. They were known as slaves because many of them were either slaves or were the sons of slaves who had become sultans.Only three of them i.e. Qutb-ud-din-Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban Were slaves during their early life. The term ‘Mamluk’ signifies a “slave born of free parents.”
QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-10 AD)
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak (1206-1210 AD) was a favourite slave of Mohammed Ghori. He was a Turk of the Aibak tribe, which means in Turkish language, Lord of the Moon. He had played an important Role in the Battle of Tarain and in the subsequent Turkish conquests In North India. He was enthroned at Lahore in 1206 AD. In a sense, he may be Regarded as the First Sultan of Delhi even though, he did not Assumed the title of Sultan. His capital remained at Lahore. He laid the foundation of Qutub Minar and the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi, after the name of the famous Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutb-ub-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. He strengthened his position by matrimonial Alliances with the influential rival Turkish chiefs. For his generosity, He was given the title of Lahh Baksh (meaning, giver of lakhs). He was a great patron of learning and patronised writers like Hassan-Nizami, author of Taj-ul-Maasir and Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi or Abdullah Sirhindi: author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi. In 1210 AD, while playing Chaugan (Polo) at Lahore, he fell down from His horse and died.
ILTUTMISH (121 0-36 AD)
Aram Shah, the son of Aibak became the ruler, but soon he was Overthrown and Shamsuddin Iltutmish was enthroned as the Sultan. He was son-in-law of Aibak. Iltutmish acquired a certificate of Legitimacy from the Caliph at Baghdad. He belonged to Ilbari clan, so His dynasty is known as Ilbari dynasty. Iltutmish was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi as His capital, in place of Lahore. He saved Delhi Sultanate from the Wrath of Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader by refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz Khan was chasing. Iltutmish Defeated Tajuddin Yildoz in the Third Battle of Tarain (1217) and Killed him. During eight years between 1226 and 1234 AD, he conquered Ranthambore(1226), Mandawar (1227), Bayana, Jalor, Gwalior,Malwa, Bhilsa, Ujjain and Bengal (1231).Iltutmish organised the Iqta system. He introduced Reforms in civil administration and army. Iltutmish Was the first Turkish ruler of Delhi who organised The army of the Sultanate as the king’s army i.e. an Army centrally recruited, centrally paid, and Centrally administered. He maintained a large Standing army on a permanent basis. He was the one who gave the country a capital, a Sovereign state, a monarchial form of government And a governing class or nobility, known as Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of forty or The Chalisa group). He set up an official nobility of Slaves known as Chahalgani. Iltutmish issued the Tanka (silver) and the Jital (copper) coins for the first time. He patronised Minhaj-ul-Siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. He Died in 1236.
The lqta System
Mohammed Ghori was the first ruler to introduce the lqta System
but, Iltutrnish gave it an institutional form. Soon it Became the mainstay of
administrative organisation. He ‘’ Divided his empire into several large and
small tracts of Land called lqta and assigned them to his soldiers, Officers
and nobles. The holders of the office were called Lqtadar, Muqti or Wali. The
collection of land revenue was integrated with the Military system, as also
with the system of provincial Government through the lqta. In the context of
the Revenue system, the term lqta meant the land or land Revenue assigned by
the ruler to an individual on certain Conditions. The holders of the lqta
served the Sultans. They curbed the influence of the Rais (local chiefs) and Regulated
the collection of land revenue. They were Bound to present themselves with
horses and arms.Whenever called upon by the Central Government for Service or
inspection. In the beginning, the lqta, which Was a revenue yielding piece or
area of land, was Assigned in lieu of salary. Balban found a lot of corruption
and mismanagement Among the assignees or the lqta holders. Most of the lqta Holders
or rnuqti, who had received the villages in the Doab by way of salary now no
longer rendered military Service being incapable of service, due to old age or Disease.
Khwaja was a civil official and he had to deal With accounts and records. Ala-ud-din
brought most of the small lqtas back into the Khalisa by a stroke of the pen.
But under Firoz, it became Hereditary. Apart from Barids, another set of reporters
existed wo were known as Munhiyan.
RUKN-UD-DIN FIROZ SHAH (1 236 AD)
Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as
the successor, the nobles placed Rukn-ud-din Firoz Shah on the throne. However,
Raziya got rid of Rukn-ud-din and his powerful Mother, Shah Turkan and ascended
the throne.
RAZlYA SULTAN (1236-40 AD)
| Raziya was the first and the last female Sultan of Delhi or medieval India. When she rose to the throne,The prestige of Sultanate had sunk very low. The capital was under attack from the fourGovernors of Lahore,Multan, Hansi and Badaun.She discarded the Purdah, adorned the male attire and Held the open court. The proud Turkish nobles thought it beneath their dignity to be governed by a woman. Thus, in 1240 AD, Raziya became a victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near gaithal. The contemporary historian Minhaj described her as “a great sovereign endowed with All the admirable attributes and qualifications necessary For kings.” |
Theory of Kingship:
The Khiljis were probably of Turkish origin, but had become Afghan in character. The replacement of l’lbari dynasty by Khilji dynasty is termed as Khilji Revolution because it Marked the end of power by the Turkish nobility and racial Dictatorship.
He followed mild and generous policies. In 1294 AD, Ala-ud-din Khilji, a nephew of Jalal-ud-din, invaded Ramachandra Dev, the ruler of Devgiri in south Ramachandra Dev was defeated and Ala-ud-din returned with an immense Booty. Jalal-ud-din himself advanced to Kara to give warm welcome to his Nephew, who murdered Jalal-ud-din and assumed himself suitable for the throne In 1296 AD.
Ala-ud-din Khilji ascended the throne after getting his uncle Jalal-ud-din Murdered. He was the first Sultan of Delhi, who separated religion from Politics. In Deccan, Ala-ud-din’s Army, led by Malik Kafur, defeated Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudram and Pandyas of Madurai. He caused himself to be called the Second Alexander (Sikander-i- Saini) In the Khutba and on his coins.He ordered that the wives and children Of all the mutineers should be kept into Prison.This was the beginning of the practice of Seizing women and children for the faults Of men. He captured Chittor, which was Renamed Khizrabad, after the name of his son Khizr Khan.
In order to avoid problems created by the nobles, Ala-ud-din issued four Important ordinances .The first ordinance was aimed at the confiscation of religious endowments and free grants of lands.By the second ordinance, he reorganised the Spy system. An army of Informers (spies were known as Barid and Munhiyan) was created and their Duty was to spy on all what happened in empire and to submit reports to the Sultan. The third ordinance prohibited the use of wine and drugs.The fourth ordinance issued by Ala-ud-din, laid down that nobles should not have social gatherings and they should not inter marry without permission. He also discarded Ulema in the political affairs of the Sultanate.
MARKET CONTROL AND ECONOMIC REFORMS
Ala-ud-din Khilji introduced a new market regulation to provide essential commodities at reasonable rates to raise resources for the army. He declared all the land in the area from Lahore to Kara (near Allahabad) as Khalisa land and raised the land Revenue to one-half of the gross production in Khalisa. He imposed two Customary taxes: Grazing (charai) and House tax (ghari). He adopted the principle of land measurement for determining land revenue. Ala-ud-din sought to fix the cost of all the commodities. For this purpose, he set up four markets at Delhi. One market was for foodgrains, the second was for Costly items and third was for horses, slaves and cattles and fourth market for merchandise. Each market was under the Control of a high officer called Shahna (or controller of market), who maintained a register of the merchants and strictly Controlled the shopkeepers and the prices.The check on market was kept by two other officers-the Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahna-i-Mandi. Malik Kabool was Appointed as the Shahna-i-Mandi, whereas Najir Yakub was appointed the Diwan-i-Riyasat. All goods for sale were brought to an open market called the Sara i-Ad1 (market for clothes). Very strict punishments were prescribed for cheating and Under-weighing. Shahna-i-Mandi was appointed to keep a strict observation. The Sultan received daily reports for the Markets from three independent sources Shahna (controller of market), Barids (intelligence officers) and Munshis (secret Spies). Ala-ud-din ordered that all land was to be measured and then the share of state was to be fixed. The post of special Officer called Mustakharaj was created for the collection of revenue.The peasants had to pay half the produce as land revenue. The booty captured during war was called ghanima, of which the State was to receive 115th share called Khums, the rest 415th was to be divided among the soldiers. Ala-ud-din reversed this and the state was now entitled to 415th as Khums, 115th being distributed among the soldiers.
THE FALL OF THE KHlLJlS
THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1 320-1 41 4 AD)
‘TRANSFER OF CAPITAL (1 326-27 AD)
PROPOSED KHURASAN EXPEDITION(1 332-33 AD)
This expedition was launched in Kumaon hills of Himalayas, allegedly to counter Chinese attack . It also appears that the journey was Directed against some stubborn tribes in Kumaon Garhwal Uttarakhand region with the Object of bringing them under Delhi Sultanate.The first attack was a success, but when rainy Season set in the invaders suffered terribly.
RELIGIOUS POLICY OF
MLIHAMMED-BIN-TUGHIAQMuhammed-bin-Tughlaq took his own decisions regarding religious matters.The Sultan did not even permit theUlema class to interfere in hisadministration. During his reign, theUlema class enjoyed monopoly overadministration of justice. Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq broke up that monopolyand appointed Qazis outside this classof people.During early period of his reign, he neither sought recognition of Khalifanor did he desire to flout the principlesof Islam, but he was not prepared to accept the interference of religion or that of any religious class in hisadministration. He used to change thedecisions of Qazis, whenever he foundthem unjust and discriminating. If a religious man was found guilty of corruption or rebellion, he was punished like any other ordinary person. Thus, nobody was above the law of the land. This is the reason why the Ulema class became unsympathetic to Muhammed-bin Tughlaq and spread dissatisfaction against him. Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq was tolerant towards his hindusubjects.He was the first Sultan of Delhi who gave respectable offices to the Indian Muslims and the Hindus. In this field,he was ahead of his time. With hisentire liberal attitude, Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq failed to get admiration andsympathy of his subjects. But thereason was not his attitude, but the failure of his schemes and oppressive measures of his policies. Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq in his last years, ran from pillar to post, in an attempt to containthe rebellion, but was unsuccessful in doing so. It came as no surprise when he died in a war camp in Sindh.
Ibn-Battuta
Muhammed-bln-Tughlaq appointed Ibn-Battuta as the Chief Qazi of Delhi.Ibn-Battuta was a Moroccan traveller who Visited India durlng the reign of Muharnmed-bin-Tughlaq .He wrote an account entitled R~hala, Which throws immense light on Tughlaq’s relgn He led campaigns to Kalanaur and Peshawar, especially afterThe Mongol attack under Tarrnashin Khan In 1326-1327 AD
He made no attempt to reassert his Authority over South India and Deccan.He decreed that whenever a noble died,His son should be allowed to succeed to His position, including his Iqta and if he had no sons, his son-in-law and in his absence, his slave. Firoz extended the Principle of heredity to the army.Soldiers were allowed to rest in peace and to send in their sons. The soldiers were not paid in cash but by assignments on the land revenue of Villages, which were-known as Wajah. This novel technique of payment led to Many abuses. Firoz tried to win over the theologians Proclaiming that he was a true muslim King and the state under him was truly Islamic. In order to keep the Ulema Satisfied, a number of them were Appointed to high offices. He tried to Ban practices, which the orthodox Theologians considered non-Islamic.Thus, he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at Graves of saints. It was during the time of Firoz, that Jaziya became a separate tax. Firoz Refused to exempt the Brahmins from Payment of Jaziya since this was not Provided in Shariat. In order to Encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid A lot of attention to irrigation. Firoz Repaired a number of canals. He wasThe first Sultan to impose irrigation tax (10%) known as Haq-i-Sharb. He Imparted, four taxes kharaj, zakat,Jeziah, khums. He established these New department in the administration .Diwan-i-Khairat It was a new Department to help poor girls for Getting married. It was a Department of charity. Diwan-i-Bandagani Another Step which Firoz took, which was Both economic and political in Nature. He opened a new Department for slaves known as Diwan-i-Bandagani DepartmentOf Slaves).Dar-ul-Shafa The Sultan establi-Shed at Delhi, a hospital described Variously as Dar-ul-Shafa, to Provide free treatment to all.
FALL OF THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1 41 4-1 451 AD)
Daulat Khan Lodhi succeeded Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud, but Khizr Khan, the Governor of Multan, marched against him on Behalf of Timur and took possession of Delhi in 1414. Daulat Khan Was sent as a prisoner to Hisar Firoza.
KHlZR KHAN (1414-21 AD)
MUBARAK SHAH (1421 -34 AD)
Mubarak Shah, the son of Khizr Khan, got the Khutba read in his Name and assumed the title of Sultan and issued his own coins.Thus, he did not accept the supremacy of any foreign power. He was The most significant ruler of the dynasty. Sultan conferred the title of Khan-i-Khana on Bahlul Lodhi. He subdued the rebellions at Bhatinda and Doab and the revolt by the Khokhar Chief, Jasrat. However, he fell to a conspiracy by some Muslim and Hindu nobles,When he proceeded to superintend the construction of a newly Planned town, called Mubarakabad, on the Jamuna. He patronised Yahiya bin Ahmed Sirhindi, author of Tarikh-i- Mubarak Shahi.
MOHAMMED SHAH (1434-45 AD)
AM-UD-DIN ALAM SHAH (1445-51 AD)
Mohammed Shah was succeeded by his son Alffz Shah, who had Already established his residence at Badaun, resigned his era Without operation. The betrayer Hamid Khan was later on asserted With the resignation of’Ala-ud-din. The Sayyid dynasty came to an End in 1451 AD and Bahlul Lodhi ushered in the Lodhi dynasty.
THE LODHI DYNASTY (1451 -1 526AD)
The rulers of this dynasty are as follows
BAHLUL LODHI (1451 -89 AD)
He was the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. During the reign of Mohammed Shah, he served as the Subedar of Lahore and Sirhind.He tried to restore the greatness of Delhi Sultanate and hence Conquered territories around Delhi. The most successful war was Against Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur (1394). He was Succeeded by his able son Nizam Shah under the title of Sultan Sikandar Lodhi in 1489.
SIKANDAR LODHI (1489-1517 AD)
Sikandar extended his empire by conquering Dholpur, Chanderi etc. He kept strict vigilance on His nobles and Jagirdars, whom he strictlySuppressed. He set up an efficient espionage system And introduced the system of auditing the accounts.He relaxed restrictions on trade, which greatlyPromoted the economic prosperity of the people. He Introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandra yard) of 39 Digits or 32 inches, for the measurement of Agricultural land. He transferred his capital from Dellii to Agra, a city Which was found by him. The village of Sikandra,Near Agra, where the tomb of Akbar stands, was Named after Sikandra.He was staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. Women Were thus debarred from visiting the graves of saints Or taking part in the processions taken out in their Memory. He lacked religious tolerance and levied Jizya and pilgrim’s tax on Hindus. He was a liberal Patron of arts and letters. He wrote verses in Persian Under the nom de plume of ~ulrukhi name of Gulrukhi.
IBRAHIM LODHI (1517-26 AD)
Sikandar Lodhi was succeeded simultaneously by his Two sons-Ibrahim on the throne of Agra and Jalal
On the throne of Jaunpur. Later, Ibrahim killed Jalal And became the ruler. There were many revolts
First Sultan of Delhi, who was killed in battle Ground. The Sultanate came to an end and a new
THE DOWNFALL OF THE DELHl SULTANATE
ADMINISTRATION IN THE SULTANATE PERIOD
The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate led to the rise of Sultans, who were Only secular leaders. The post of the Sultan began to be elevated. He was Responsible for administration and was the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He was the ultimate court of appeal in all the judicial cases. He was the Centre of the society and politics and held a magnificent court. The Sultan Generally discussed all important matters of state in council, Majlis-i-Am or Majlis-i-Khalwat, in which the most trusted and highest officers were allowed To sit.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The Sultan was assisted by a number of ministers who were chosen by the ruler and held office as the ruler pleased. The number of ministers or the Departments they headed were not fixed. According to Barni, there were four Important ministers comparable to four pillars, on which administration rested,These were Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-Insha. Diwan-i-Risalat. The Monarch could seek advice from anyone in whom he had confidence. The Ministries did not form a council. There was no concept of joint responsibility.
IMPORTANT MINISTERS OF CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Wazir Key figure in the administration, incharge of revenue and finance, who Also controlled the other departments. His office was known as the Diwan-i- Wizarat.
Ariz-i-Mumalik Head of the Military Department. His office was known as the
Diwan-i-Arz.
Diwan-i-Risalat It dealt with the religious matters and stipends to deserving
Scholars. It was presided over by the chief Sadr, who was generally a leading Qazi.
Diwan-i-Insha It dealt with the state correspondence.
Barid-i-Mumalik Head of state news agency.
Wakil-i-Dar Controller of the~royal household.
Amir-i-Hazib Officer incharge of the royal court.
Sadr-i-Jahan Officer incharge of religious and charitable endowments.
Amir-i-Akhur Officer commanding the royal horses.
Amir-i-dad Officer incharge of justice (public prosecutor).
Sahna-i-Pi1 Superintendent of royal elephants.
Shiqdar Officer incharge of land measuring a ‘shiq’
Amir-i-Majlis Officer incharge of royal feasts, conference and festivals.
Majlis-i-Am or Majlis-i-Khalwat Council of friends and officers (trustedMinisters) consulted on important affairs of state.
Kazi-ul-Kazat Head of the Central Judicial department.
Qazi Legal officer (dispensed Civil Law based on Muslim Law Shariat).
Sadr-us-Sudur Dealt with the religious matters.Naib Wazir Deputy minister.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
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