THE REVOLT OF 1857
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| The Sepoy Mutiny |
The Revolt of 1857 was a product of the cumulative effect of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation and administrative policies over the years. These policies had adversely affected the position of the rulers of the Indian states, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, pundits, traders, artisans,mauluis. The resentment of the Indians had found expression in a number of mutinies and insurrections from time to time in different parts of the country. But this violent storm of 1857 was unique, since it jolted the foundation of the British empire in India. It changed the nature of administration of British India in such a way, that the Company rule was replaced with that of the crown rule.
CAUSES OF THE REVOLT
causes of the revolt can be studied from political,economic, socio-cultural and several other aspects. The same are discussed below
POLITICAL CAUSES
Under the Subsidiary Alliance System, introduced by Lord Wellesley, the Indian rulers were to agree the stationing of British contingents, for whose maintenance, the rulers were required to pay a subsidy to the British. This system was suited best to the British as, without even spending a single penny,the British were able to maintain large forces.
The Doctrine of Lapse was devised by the British as an annexation policy. It was aggressively followed by Dalhousie and came to be widely resented. These aforesaid policies caused suspicion and uneasiness among the Indian ruling class, after the right of succession was denied to the adopted sons of the Hindu princess. These led to collapse of Indian states.States Annexed Under the Doctrine of Lapse
States Annexed were Satara , Sambhalpur
ECONOMIC CAUSES
The Colonial policies of English Company destroyed the traditional economic structure of the Indian society. The self-sufficiency of villages was badly hit by British rule.
The newly, introduced revenue settlement system imposed severe disability on farmers. Under heavy pressure of taxation, peasants resorted to loans from moneylenders.
Moneylenders and traders emerged as new landlords.The policy of Free Trade after 1813, forced the India spinners and weavers out. of employment as a large proportion of textiles was now imported from Britain. Due to unfavourable terms of trade, the commercial activities suffered on both International and Inter-levels. The ruination of Indian industry increased the pressure on agriculture and land, the lopsided development resulted in pauperisation of the country in general.
ADMINISTRATIVE CAUSES
British followed the policy of discrimination against Indians. Under British rule, all high posts, civil and military were reserved for the Europeans. The Land Revenue Policy of British was very unpopular which ruined the Indian people to subsistence. Rampant corruption of the Company's administration especially
among the police, petty officials and lower law courts made British rule very unpopular.
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CAUSES
The attempts of Christian missionaries to convert Indians to Christianity were looked with suspicion by Indians.Idolatry was denounced, Hindu Gods and Goddesses ridiculed and Hindu superstitions were dubbed as ignorant. Further, abolition of sati, support to widow-remarriage and women's education were seen by a large section of the population as interference in the social and religious domains of Indian society by outsiders.
The legislative measures such as the Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 modified Hindu customs that a change of religion did not debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father. The efforts of Bethune towards women education made the Indians feel that through education, the British were gaining to conquer their civilisation.
MILITARY CAUSES
The sepoys of the British Indian Army were the most unhappy with their employers because they were lowly paid, much less than the British soldiers of the corresponding ranks. Sepoys were treated with contempt by their British officers and were called niggers and sooers(pigs). They had little career prospects. No Indian could rise higher than the post of a Subedar.
Dissatisfaction of sepoys over the order that they would not be given the foreign allowances (the payment of Bhatta), while serving in Sindh and in Punjab, caused hatred among them. The sepoys considered the acts like forbidding them to wear caste and sectarian marks (beards, turbans etc) as a direct interference in their religion.
Every fresh recruit had to furnish an undertaking that he would serve overseas
(under the General Enlistment Act, 1856). Moreover, the act was a direct attack upon the Hindu Caste system, as the popular belief among the Hindus was that crossing the seas meant a loss of caste.
THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE :
THE GREASED CARTRIDGES
The new Enfield Rifle had been first introduced in the army. Its cartridges had greased paper cover whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into rifle. The grease was in some instances composed of beef and pig fat.
The sepoys, Hindu as well as Muslim, were enraged. The use of the greased cartridges would endanger their religion. Many of them believed that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religion and convert them to Christianity. The time to rebel had come.
Other Factors of Revolt
De-industrialisation i,e ruin of artisans and
handicraftsmen
- lmpoverishment of rural peasantry in lndia
by heavy taxation Ruin of old zamindars and emergence of new land relations
Famine and poverty, due to excessive demand of revenue and deterioration of agriculture
The ruination of Industry increased the , pressure on agriculture land.
OUTSIDE INFLUENCE ON
THE REVOLT OF 1857
The 1857 Revolt coincided with outside events. These events not only influenced the revolt but also had psychological repercussions. These events exposed the weaknesses and losses of British in which they were involved.
Those events were many, but most notable
were the First Afghan War (1838-42) under
Lord Auckland, Punjab War (1845-49)
under Lord Hardinge, which ended with
treaty of Lahore, Crimean War (1853-56),
and Santhal Rebellion (1855-57).
PARTICIPATION OF PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND WEAVERS IN THE REVOLT OF 1857
The British Economic Policy was exploitative in nature. In order to gain maximum possible profit, it targeted two major sectors of the Indian economy-Agriculture and Industry.
Following were the reasons which caused major hardship to the Indians Excessive demands of revenue by the Company.
Peasant participation in rebellion, was provoked firstly by over-taxation and secondly by the fact, that the sepoys themselves came from the villages. In Mahalwari areas, the loss of land or the probability of such loss, drove most peasants to the rebellion.
In Awadh, the peasants rose to the call of the traditional elements i.e. the zamindars and the taluqdars as these were dispossessed in large numbers. Apart from this, the Free Trade Imperialist Policy meant that the Indians, particularly spinners and weavers, were thrown out of employment as more than a quarter of the total textile consumption of India, was now met by imports from Britain.
It is not surprising that urban weavers were especially enthusiastic in their support of the revolt, many even join as armed volunteers.
CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF THE REVOLT
The poor organisation and lack of coordination among the rebels was perhaps the most important cause of its failure.
Some othercauses were as follows
The stronghold area of the revolt remained limited enabling the English to concentrate and utilise their strength, effectively against the rebels in the limited area.
The English had better resources, modern weapons and materials of war.
The Telegraph kept Commander-in-Chief well informed about the movement of rebels.
There was lack of unity among Indians. Many natives like the Scindhia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of
Hyderabad, Raja of Jodhpur and other rulers of Patiala, Nabha,Jind and Kashmir and many other ruling chiefs and big zamindars actively helped the British to suppress the revolt.
The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt,they were repelled by the rebels appeals to superstitions and their opposition to progressive social measures.
Neither the leaders nor the sepoys were inspired by any high ideals of patriotism and nationalism. It was the wide participation of peasantry and artisans in the revolt, which gave it real strength as well as the character of a popular revolt, especially in the areas, at present, included in UttarPradesh and Bihar.
IMPACT OF THE REVOLT/MUTINY
POLITICAL IMPACT
The liquidation of English East India Company was the first and immediate result of the revolt. The act of the better Government of India (1858) was rushed through the British Parliament,
which transferred power from the Company to the British crown.
The act laid down that "India shall be governed by and in the name of the sovereign through the secretary of state of India,assisted by a council of 15 members." British Government made
a new declaration of their policy towards India. This was done in the form of the Queen's Proclamation issued in 1858. A new policy was definitely initiated towards the Indian States.
Queen's Proclamation
The Proclamation promised benevolence and religious toleration.
It disclaimed all desire for extension of territory.
It promised to respect the dignity and honour of the native princess of India.
It declared the Impartial recruitment to offices on the basis of qualification, abillity and integrity.
Pardon and amnesty were granted to all those still In arms against the British Government provided they had not been found guilty of the murder of British subjects.
'THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT,
1858
This significant act was enacted in the wake of the Revolt of 1857. The act known as the Act for the Good Government of India, abolished the East India Company and transferred the power of government,territories and revenue to the British Crown.
FEATURES OF THE ACT
It provided that, India henceforth was to be governed by and in the name of her majesty. It changed the designation of the Governor-General of India to the Viceroy of India. He was the direct representative of the British Crown in India.
It ended the double government by abolishing the Board of Control and the Court of Director.
It created a new office, Secretary of State for India,vested with complete authority and control over Indian administration. The Secretary of State was a member of
British Cabinet and was responsible ultimately to the British Parliament.
It established a 15-member Council of India to assist the Secretary of State for India. The Council was an advisory body. The Secretary of State was the Chairman of Council.
It constituted the Secretary of State-in-Council as a body corporate, capable of suing and being sued in India and in England.
REORGANISATION OF THE ARMY
The Army was reorganised after 1858. The proportion of British troops in the Indian Army was increased. They were primarily used to maintain internal security, while the Indian troops were organised and trained for service sabroad to subjugate Asian and African territories for British Imperialism.
The artillery was taken away from the Indian hands. All higher and sensitive appointments were reserved for the British; An Indian could not get employment in the Army headquarters, except as a clerk in a non-military capacity.
The battalions were drawn from such diverse elements as the Sikhs, the Punjabi Muslims, the Pathans, the Rajputs, the Gurkhas etc and it was quite easy for the British to exploit communal, caste and regional difference of the sepoys.
A subtle distinction was also drawn between martial and non-martial races and a myth on this basis were propounded.
The Sikhs and Gurkhas, who were loyal to the British in the revolt were termed as the martial races. As a result of the revolt, changes were made in the Judicial field also.
New Civil and Criminal procedure codes were passed. The Judiciary was reorganised under the Indian High Courts Act,1861. High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,in place of the Sadar Courts and Supreme Courts, which had existed before the revolt.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
IMPACT
The old policy of promoting reforms was abandoned because it was contended that it was this policy, which had been one of the important causes of the rising of 1857.
The cause of reform was now wholly left to the initiative of the Indians themselves. And this continued to be the basic policy of the Government of India for over half a century. The Muslim Renaissance, which had been growing in Delhi before 1857, got an irreparable shock.
SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE REVOLT
There was a complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims at all levels i.e. people to people, among soldiers and also among leaders.This unity shows the spontaneous raising of the last Mughal king, Bahadur Shah Zafar, to the leadership of the country. This recognised the Hindu-Muslim unity at the National level and showed the symbol of political unity.
Immediate banning of cow slaughter was ordered, once the revolt was successful in a particular area. Both Hindus and Muslims were well represented in leadership, for instance,Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim as an expert in political propaganda.
It must be noted here that Lakshmi Bai, had the solid support of Afghan soldiers. Thus, the events of 1857 demonstrated and recognised the communal Harmony.
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